Wildlife Control Brampton Can Be Fun For Everyone

The Basic Principles Of Brampton Wildlife Control


Squirrel Removal BramptonAnimal Control Brampton

Human-induced modifications in the setting will often lead to raised numbers of a types. For instance, piles of scrap building product make exceptional websites where rats can nest. Food neglected for home family pets is frequently similarly attractive to some wild animals types. In these situations, the wild animals have suitable food as well as habitat and may come to be an annoyance.


 

 
 



 


Little animals and some birds can be omitted with netting, tarp, equipment cloth or any type of other suitable material; internet can be found in various weave dimensions suitable for different animals to be excluded. However, exemption methods can conflict with the all-natural motion of wild animals, particularly when exclusion covers huge areas of land.




Wildlife Control BramptonWildlife Control Brampton
Habitat adjustment works due to the fact that it limits access to one or even more of the needs forever food, water or sanctuary. Environment modification, while restricting nuisance wild animals, might additionally limit preferable species such as songbirds. Rodent- or bat-proofing buildings by sealing splits and openings stops these animals from acquiring access to ideal environments where they are not welcome.


Even under the finest of conditions, repellents frequently fail to live up to customer assumptions. The factor for this is twofold. Numerous repellents just don't function. Peer-reviewed publications have regularly revealed that ultrasonic gadgets do not drive undesirable pets away. [] Second, even when the repellent has actually been revealed to function, pets in alarming need of food will certainly "hold their nose" and consume anyway since the alternative is essentially death by hunger.




How Brampton Wildlife Services can Save You Time, Stress, and Money.


The launch of the animal to one more location might be forbidden by state law, or might be regulated by the local Department of Fish and also Video game. Leghold catches may permit either launch or assisted suicide of the entraped pet. Traps such as body-gripping catches, scissor as well as harpoon traps, along with rat/mouse breeze traps, are nearly always lethal.




Wildlife Removal BramptonBrampton Wildlife Services
Technically, the Sonic Nets innovation is not a bird or wildlife scarer, however prevents birds and also pets from entering into or spending quality time in the target area. The influence to the animals resembles talking in a congested area, and also because they can not comprehend each various other they go elsewhere.


The provisionary and complete licenses were submitted in 2013 and 2014 respectively, and more study and also commercialization of the technology are ongoing. []


In wild animals damage management (WDM), a variety of methods and also tools are utilized to decrease wild animals problems to bearable degrees. Several approaches exist since typically no solitary technique will eliminate all disputes. This component highlights those approaches and tools. Describe the demand as well as relevance of having a selection of techniques for WDM.




9 Simple Techniques For Brampton Wildlife Services




Describe techniques for dealing with wild animals disputes using Integrated Pest Management (IPM) techniques. When you take into consideration the variety of varieties as well as trouble scenarios, it emerges that WDM is not a one-size-fits-all activity. Furthermore, several approaches can be utilized in combination with others - Animal Removal Brampton. In truth, it is suggested to use several methods whenever practical, especially to resolve enduring damages situations.


A severe instance of habitat modification is to pave a lawn with asphalt to stop mole damage. Many habitat alterations are a lot more refined, such as cutting brush around the perimeter of the lawn, however they play an important role in long-term WDM.


Exclusion consists of making use of obstacles, such as internet, cyndrical tubes, as well as fences, to stop wild animals from accessing locations and also creating damages. This method can offer high degrees of protection over the brief- as well as long-lasting, however exemption can be very pricey when big locations need defense. Exclusion is a preferred IPM technique and friendly to wild animals.


The owl effigy on this roof does not distress the gulls. Image by Stephen M. Vantassel. Some scarecrows Continued actually move. Animated "human effigies" have a tendency to function a lot far better than the home-made scarecrows, which are better considered as yard decors. Fixed visual frightening tools are the least efficient, as birds tend to habituate to these tools in a few days.




Top Guidelines Of Wildlife Control Brampton


Do not beam them directly in the eyes of birds or people. Propane cannons (Figure 4) generate a loud boom that is appropriate only for rural settings.


Do not haze geese throughout their molt (typically mid-June to mid-July), since they are vulnerable and also can not fly. Secure a license that permits the taking of geese prior to beginning hazing activities. Even a well-trained dog may inadvertently harm a goose while chasing it. Without a permit, this would be a violation of the MBTA.




 


In most states, you need to have a chemical applicator permit to make use of these items commercially. Property owners can buy and utilize non-prescription products on their residential or commercial property. The performance of repellents often is highly variable, relying on the motivation of issue pets, alternate sources, weather condition, ability of the applicator, the animal's previous experience with the repellent, as well as the energetic ingredients in the repellent.


Toxicants should be integrated with other WDM approaches, such as habitat alteration and exemption, to enhance their efficiency. Always review the label for details and also restrictions on news using a toxicant. For example, the majority of toxicants for rats and computer mice just can be used "around structures" as well Clicking Here as are illegal for use in landscapes away from structures.




All about Brampton Wildlife Control


We detail it below as it is occasionally one of the most viable and cost-efficient means to handle a wildlife problem. Safety concerns and lawful restrictions have to be taken into consideration before shooting - Brampton Wildlife Removal. For appropriate training in the usage of firearms, go to a hunter education course or a training course funded by the National Rifle Association.


Traps are among one of the most common devices made use of to manage wild animals damages, so it is essential to comprehend how they function as well as exactly how to use them. People typically defalcate the term live catch to refer to cage and box traps, when as a matter of fact lots of other traps likewise catch animals alive (Squirrel Removal Brampton).

 

Not known Factual Statements About Brampton Wildlife Control

Wildlife Removal Brampton Can Be Fun For Anyone


Placement the steel sheet between the ground as well as the birdfeeder or nest box. When parasites attempt to climb up the pole, the metal sheet will normally avoid them from getting to the feeder or the nest box.




 


They are placed on optimals of roofs, signs, walks, as well as other narrow areas where birds loaf. Birds land on the rollers. When the wheels roll, the birds drop off. This drives some birds away from the site. include lines, wires, flappers, inclines, spikes, coils, and also shock tape. Each approach has been developed for usage in certain scenarios such as over water, in wastewater treatment systems, or on ledges.


Stationary aesthetic frightening devices are the least effective, as birds often tend to habituate to them in a few days (Number 5). Figure 5. Wildlife Control Brampton.




Wildlife Control BramptonBrampton Raccoon Removal
When utilized appropriately, chemical repellents are not toxic to target animals. The effectiveness of repellents typically is extremely variable, depending on the inspiration of trouble pets, different resources, previous experience, and also energetic components of the repellent. Repellents function best if alternate food as well as sanctuary are available to the parasite and insect populations are low.




Top Guidelines Of Animal Removal Brampton


Brampton Raccoon RemovalSquirrel Removal Brampton
Capturing is suitable for use with medium to big animals (squirrel-sized and also bigger) and also birds. Shooting requires training as well as ability. Security worries and also legal constraints have to be considered prior to capturing. For proper training in using weapons, participate in a seeker education and learning training course or a training program funded by the National Rifle Organization (NRA).


Shotguns and also rifles are necessary tools in WDM. Picture by UNL. They are the tools frequently utilized by NWCOs to eliminate wildlife. The information on capturing that is given in this area is particularly significant to NWCOs for taking care of trouble wild animals. Since trapping is such an important component of WDM, Component 8 in this handbook supplies a lot more in-depth information.


They can be located on the DEC website at A real-time trap is meant to record an animal without eliminating it. Live traps consist of cage traps (Number 10a), box traps (Number 10b), multiple-capture catches, foothold catches, nets, and also for those NWCOs with an unique license from the DEC, cable-restraints.




An animal see gets in a cage or box trap as well as actions on a treadle, which causes the door(s) at the end(s) of the catch to close. Generally, little website prep work is required. They typically are risk-free for youngsters and family pets. The majority of people believe they are gentle, yet some animals may harm themselves since of the stress of being restrained or while attempting to run away.




Everything about Animal Control Brampton


 

 



No. 2 coil-spring footing trap. Leg-hold, while an usual term, really is incorrect, as pets ought to not be recorded by the leg due to the danger of breaking bones. Footings can be used in land collections, water sets, and also under ice.


The inside jaw spread describes the range between the 2 jaws gauged perpendicular to the joints when the trap is established, not counting the thickness of each jaw. Throughout open beaver and otter period, foothold catches up to 7" are enabled if set under water. It is prohibited to set grip catches near an animal carcass or pet parts unless the carcass or parts are covered and not noticeable from above.


When an animal steps on the frying pan, it dislodges the pet (trigger hook) from its notch, which springs the trap, as well as the jaws surround the foot of the animal. Oftentimes, standard coil-spring traps can be changed by padding or laminating flooring the jaws to lower the chance of injuring the captured animal as well as perhaps enhance the effectiveness of the catch.


Grip catches need to have multiple swivel points between the trap as well as the risk that supports the catch to the ground. Swivels allow the captured animal to walk around without binding the chain and also turning the leg. Most swivels within the chain are dual, yet solitary swivels usually are utilized at the end of the chain.




Some Ideas on Brampton Wildlife Removal You Should Know


A coil-spring grip trap (Brampton Raccoon Removal). Picture courtesy of Best Practices for Annoyance Wildlife Control Manual. Many NWCOs change their catches so the click now chain is attached to the center as opposed to completion of the trap. When used with the swivels, this can aid straighten the trap at a better angle to avoid injury.




Brampton Wildlife ServicesWildlife Control Brampton
Establish the catch in a visit location that is free of anything that may entangle the chain. An animal that evaluates less than the target types must be able to tip on the frying pan without causing the catch.




 


The tighter the screw, the larger the pet has to be to spring the catch. Every one of the techniques and also alterations are utilized together or in various mixes to raise performance as well as minimize injury to a caught animal. While the overall objective is to minimize injury to animals, the opinions and also level of sensitivities of customers and the public also should be taken into consideration.


Cable-restraints, often incorrectly called snares, utilize a wire to capture a pet around the neck or body, as well as hold it without killing it. Sometimes the distinction in between a cable-restraint and also a lethal entrapment exists just in the way the device is established.

 

The 2-Minute Rule for Brampton Wildlife Control

How Brampton Raccoon Removal can Save You Time, Stress, and Money.


Wildlife Removal BramptonAnimal Removal Brampton

Human-induced adjustments in the environment will certainly commonly cause enhanced varieties of a species. For instance, heaps of scrap building material make superb sites where rats can nest. Food overlooked for house pets is commonly just as attractive to some wild animals species. In these scenarios, the wildlife have ideal food and environment as well as may end up being an annoyance.


 

 
 



 


Small mammals and some birds can be excluded with netting, tarp, hardware cloth or any kind of other appropriate product; internet been available in different weave dimensions ideal for various animals to be omitted. Nevertheless, exclusion methods can hinder the all-natural activity of wild animals, particularly when exemption covers huge areas of land.




Animal Removal BramptonBrampton Wildlife Control
Habitat adjustment is effective because it limits accessibility to several of the demands for life food, water or shelter. Habitat adjustment, while restricting hassle wild animals, may likewise limit preferable varieties such as songbirds. Rodent- or bat-proofing structures by sealing fractures as well as openings avoids these animals from obtaining access to appropriate habitats where they are not welcome.


However, also under the most effective of problems, repellents regularly fall short to live up to individual assumptions. The reason for this is twofold. Lots of repellents just do not work. For instance, peer-reviewed publications have consistently shown that ultrasonic devices do not drive unwanted pets away. [] Second, also when the repellent has actually been revealed to function, animals in dire requirement of food will "hold their nose" and eat anyway because the choice is basically fatality by hunger.




Animal Control Brampton for Dummies


The launch of the animal to another area might be restricted by state regulation, or may be managed by the local Division of Fish and also Game. Leghold catches might permit either launch or euthanasia of the entraped pet. Traps such as body-gripping catches, scissor and harpoon catches, in addition to rat/mouse breeze catches, are virtually always dangerous.




Brampton Wildlife ControlAnimal Control Brampton
Technically, the Sonic Nets modern technology is not a bird or wildlife scarer, however discourages birds and animals from entering into or spending quality time in the target location. The effect to the animals resembles speaking in a congested space, and because they can not understand each other they go somewhere else.


The provisionary and full licenses were submitted in 2013 as well as 2014 respectively, as well as additional research study and also commercialization of the innovation are continuous. []


In wild animals damage administration (WDM), a variety of techniques and tools are utilized to minimize wildlife problems to tolerable degrees. Several approaches exist since usually no solitary technique will certainly eliminate all problems.




Some Ideas on Brampton Wildlife Removal You Need To Know




Define methods for solving wild animals conflicts using Integrated Pest Administration (IPM) techniques. When you take into consideration the variety of varieties and also trouble scenarios, it becomes noticeable that WDM is not a one-size-fits-all activity. Numerous methods can be used in combination with others. In truth, it is a good idea to utilize several techniques whenever practical, specifically to attend to enduring damage scenarios.


An extreme example of environment modification is to lead a grass with asphalt to stop mole damages. The majority of habitat alterations are more refined, such as reducing brush around the perimeter of the lawn, yet they play an essential duty in long-term WDM.


Exclusion consists of using barriers, such as nets, cylinders, as well as fencings, to stop wild animals from accessing areas as well as triggering damages. This method can offer high degrees of security over the brief- and also long-term, but exclusion can be really pricey when large locations need security. Exclusion is a prominent IPM approach and also friendly to wildlife.


The owl effigy on this roofing does not distress the gulls. Image by Stephen M. Vantassel. For instance, some scarecrows in fact relocate. Animated "human effigies" tend to work far better than the home-made scarecrows, which are much better considered as garden decorations. Stationary visual frightening gadgets are the least reliable, as birds tend to habituate to these devices in a few days.




Wildlife Removal Brampton - The Facts


Do not shine them straight in the eyes of birds or people. Try to place the laser so its beam of over here light shines alongside the ground. Audio or distinct gadgets include gas cannons and distress signal. Lp cannons (Figure 4) generate a noisy boom that is ideal only for country settings.


Do not haze geese throughout their molt (typically mid-June to mid-July), because they are at risk and can not fly. Safeguard a license that permits the taking of geese before starting hazing tasks. Even a trained canine could accidentally wound a goose while chasing it. Without a permit, this would certainly be an infraction of the MBTA.




 


In a lot of states, you need to have a pesticide applicator license to make use of these products readily. Property owners can buy as well as make use of over-the-counter products on their building. The effectiveness of repellents typically is extremely variable, depending upon the inspiration of trouble pets, different sources, climate, ability of the applicator, the pet's previous experience with the repellent, as well as the energetic ingredients in the repellent.


Toxicants ought to be integrated with other WDM methods, such as habitat modification and exclusion, to increase their performance. Constantly review the label for details as well as restrictions on the use of a toxicant. As an example, a lot of toxicants for rats as well as computer mice only can be used "in and around frameworks" as well as are illegal for usage in landscapes away from buildings.




How Animal Control Brampton can Save You Time, Stress, and Money.


We provide it right here as it is occasionally the most sensible and also economical means to take care of a wild animals dispute. Safety issues and legal limitations should be considered prior to capturing - Brampton Raccoon Removal. For appropriate my company training in using firearms, go to a seeker education and learning training course or a training program sponsored by the National Rifle Association.


Traps are amongst one of the most common tools made use of to manage wild animals damage, so it is very important to recognize just how they work and also how to use them. People usually defalcate the term online trap to refer to cage as well as box traps, when actually additional reading several other traps likewise catch animals alive (Squirrel Removal Brampton).

 

Our Brampton Raccoon Removal Ideas

Brampton Raccoon Removal - Truths

 

They must be made use of just in areas where non-target captures are not likely, particularly domestic pet dogs and pet cats Numerous dimensions are readily available. Body-gripping traps often are called Conibears, which is the name of a popular design manufactured by Oneida-Victor, Inc.

 

 

 

Brampton Wildlife ControlBrampton Wildlife Removal
To set a body-gripping catch, compress the spring until the tips virtually fulfill at the rotating point of the jaws. Hold both jaws open and fit the pet (a. k.a. the trigger hook), which is scratched, right into the notch situated on the trigger. When securely in area, the pet holds the jaws open.


Vantassel. One method to reduce the risk of capturing a non-target pet is to utilize a vertical cubby set. The cubby collection is a baited box that is open on one end with the catch set well inside, typically held in place by rubbing in between the springs and a notch in package.


Anchor the trap so it will continue to be in the cubby after it is sprung. Location bait on a rack near the top of the box. In set placement, the trigger and jaws are within package and the springs stand out sideways of the box (Figures 17a and also 17 b).

 

 

 

Our Raccoon Removal Brampton Diaries


Location lure deep inside package, at the very least 6 inches behind the established catch. By restricting the dimension of the opening, you minimize the threat that a pet will certainly spring the catch. The opening elevation of a deep-notch box ought to be no more than 6 inches off the ground. Figure 18.


Photos by Best Practices for Hassle Wildlife Control Handbook. The vertical cubby set as well as the deep-notch box job on the same idea, as well as are compatible, they have various toughness. The vertical cubby is less most likely to bring in pet cats, unless the incorrect lure is used, and is more dog-proof than the deep-notch box (Brampton Wildlife Services).

 

 

 

 


With a two-way trigger, a trap can spring no matter which way the animal methods. It can catch an animal on its method out of its den, which is what you desire, however it may likewise inadvertently catch an animal that quit to examine. In some situations, that might be a non-target animal.


Just pets that look for the lure will certainly lift the lid, which is what triggers the trap. A pet can accidentally step on the lid without establishing off the trap. The bait mug lies to place the computer mouse in the perfect strike position. This catch is extra careful as well as a lot more reliable than standard snap catches.

 

 

 

The Ultimate Guide To Brampton Wildlife Services

 

Raccoon Removal BramptonWildlife Removal Brampton

 
 

 


Some styles (e. g., Ketch-All as well as Kwick Katch) have a wind-up springtime that powers a rotating device. Various other catches (e. g., Victor Tin Pet cat) have one-way doors that permit computer mice to get in but not leave. Examine live traps commonly sufficient to make sure that pets are not stressed out or revealed to severe temperature levels.




They are all established on, in, or underground at the passage. Prepare the website and established the catch according to the instructions offered for the trap.


Some think about glue boards an online catch, they typically are not used that method. Pets can be removed from glue boards by using oil to the adhesive, however the oil might hurt the pet. In technique, pets often are left to die on adhesive boards. Glue boards are not recommended as a general-use device (Animal Removal Brampton).


Area bait outdoors and also inside the trap to encourage the birds to go into the catch. If the birds do not Wildlife Control Brampton involve the site, choose one more location. Lastly, when birds are accustomed to going into the catch, established the catch and place the bait just inside. Leave a captured bird inside the trap as a decoy.

 

 

 

7 Easy Facts About Animal Removal Brampton Explained

 

 


A set encompasses the usage of the trap and also its entire placement. Grips, and in some instances, cage traps can be located in means that allow the caught pet to pass away or live.


They depend on appeal or lure to attract an animal to the trap. Marshmallows as well as sardines draw in raccoons yet marshmallows will not tempt cats, so marshmallows are safer if you should trap where felines are complimentary roaming.


Computer mice are attracted by lots of kinds of lure that are appealing to other species but baits are not always necessary to attract mice. Instead, tie a cotton ball to the trigger. A cotton ball is an appealing little bit of nest material to a mouse however is of no rate of interest to many various other species.


One technique makes use of a "Y" stick. Dig several of the lure with the stem of the "Y." Place the stem into the bait location of the catch so that the forked ends grab onto the catch mesh as well as enable the stem to dangle. With this method, the bait has really high direct exposure to the air around it while maintaining the bait off the ground and away from ants.

 

 

 

Facts About Brampton Wildlife Services Uncovered


The small area makes it tough for rain to clean it away as well as when it does, the lure is up to the ground where it still might be efficient. An alternative is to make use of a T-shaped plastic (PVC) pipe with openings in it (Figure 24). They are long-lasting and also will not be thrown off facility when you cover the cage with a cloth.
 

An Unbiased View of Animal Control Brampton

The Only Guide to Raccoon Removal Brampton

 

To install a cone guard, place the metal sheet in addition to the post. The post must experience the facility opening in the steel sheet. Brampton Raccoon Removal. Placement the metal sheet in between the ground and also the birdfeeder or nest box. When parasites attempt to climb the pole, the steel sheet will usually stop them from getting to the feeder or the nest box.

 

 

 

 


They are installed on tops of roofing systems, indicators, steps, and other slim locations where birds loaf. Birds arrive on the rollers. When the wheels roll, the birds fall off. This drives some birds far from the website. include lines, cords, flappers, inclines, spikes, coils, and also shock tape. Each technique has actually been established for usage in specific circumstances such as over water, in wastewater therapy systems, or on ledges.


Stationary visual frightening tools are the least reliable, as birds have a tendency to habituate to them in a couple of days (Number 5). Figure 5. Animal Removal Brampton.

 

 

 

Animal Control BramptonSquirrel Removal Brampton
When utilized properly, chemical repellents are not toxic to target pets. The performance of repellents usually is very variable, depending on the inspiration of trouble animals, alternative resources, previous experience, and energetic ingredients of the repellent. Repellents function best if alternative food and also shelter are offered to the pest and also pest populaces are reduced.

 

 

 

The 4-Minute Rule for Animal Removal Brampton

 

Brampton Wildlife RemovalAnimal Control Brampton
Capturing is ideal for usage with tool to big mammals (squirrel-sized and also bigger) as well as birds. Shooting calls for training and also skill. Security concerns and also lawful limitations should be considered before capturing. For proper training in making use of weapons, go to a hunter education course or a training program sponsored by the National Rifle Association (NRA).


They are the tools most usually used by NWCOs to eliminate wild animals. Because capturing is such an important part of WDM, Component 8 in this manual supplies much more thorough information.


They can be discovered on the DEC website at A live trap is suggested to capture a pet without eliminating it. Live catches include cage traps (Figure 10a), box traps (Figure 10b), multiple-capture catches, footing catches, nets, and for those NWCOs with a special authorization from the DEC, cable-restraints.




A pet goes into a cage or box trap and actions on a treadle, which creates the door(s) at the end(s) of the trap to close. The majority of individuals believe they are humane, yet some pets may hurt themselves because of the stress of being limited or while trying to leave.

 

 

 

About Wildlife Removal Brampton

 

 

 

 


Number 11. No. 2 coil-spring footing catch. Image by Dallas Virchow. Leg-hold, while a common term, in fact is imprecise, as pets ought to not be caught by the leg because of the threat of breaking bones. Grips can be used in land collections, water sets, and under ice. They are one of the most efficient tools for capturing coyotes as well as foxes and often are very important for capturing raccoons, beavers, as well as muskrats.


The inside jaw spread refers to the distance between the 2 jaws determined vertical to the joints when the trap is set, not counting the density of each jaw. Throughout open beaver and otter period, foothold traps approximately 7" are permitted if established under water. It is illegal to set foothold traps near an animal carcass or animal components unless the carcass or components are covered and also not noticeable from above.


When an animal steps on the pan, it removes the pet (trigger hook) from its notch, which springs the trap, as well as the jaws surround the foot of the pet. Oftentimes, common coil-spring catches can be changed by padding or laminating flooring the jaws to minimize the chance of harming the captured pet and perhaps raise the performance of the trap.


Footing traps need to have multiple swivel factors in between the catch as well as the risk that supports the catch to the ground. Swivels enable the captured pet to walk around without binding the chain and twisting the leg. The majority of swivels within the chain are dual, yet solitary swivels generally are used at the end of the chain.

 

 

 

The 30-Second Trick For Brampton Wildlife Control


A coil-spring footing trap (Animal Control Brampton). Picture thanks to Best Practices for Problem Wildlife Control Guidebook. Several NWCOs customize their traps so the chain is connected to the facility instead of the end of the trap. When made use of with the swivels, this can aid line up the catch at a better angle to avoid injury.

 

 

 

Wildlife Control BramptonBrampton Wildlife Services
Another modification is to have a shock-absorbing spring in the chain. Set the catch in an area that is devoid of anything that may entangle the chain. Adjust the pan stress on coil-spring catches to minimize the opportunity of capturing the wrong types. An animal that evaluates much less than the target varieties should be able to step on the frying pan without setting off the catch.

 

 

 

 


The tighter the screw, the much heavier the animal needs to be to spring the trap. All of the methods and also adjustments are used with each other or in different combinations to raise efficiency as well as minimize injury to an entraped animal. While the total goal is to lower injury to animals, the point of views as well as sensitivities of customers and the general public also should be thought about.


Check with the DEC for particular requirements. Cable-restraints, frequently erroneously called snares, make use of a wire to catch an animal around the neck or body, as well as hold it without killing it. Often the difference between a cable-restraint and also a deadly entrapment exists only Wildlife Removal Brampton in the method the tool is set. Cable-restraints are either passive (gravity-operated) or energetic (spring-operated).
 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15